Review Researching the Effects of Form-focussed Instruction on L2 Acquisition

Abstract

How tin can language awareness (LA) influence second linguistic communication (L2) learning? One answer to this question tin can be drawn from 2nd linguistic communication acquisition (SLA) in the body of research on class-focused instruction (FFI), divers every bit a type of L2 instruction that "involves some attempt to focus learners' attending on specific properties of the L2 so that they will learn them" (Ellis, 2008: 963). Because FFI is sometimes confused with decontextualized grammar pedagogy, this chapter volition clarify its office equally complementary to communicatively oriented or content-based approaches to second and foreign language teaching. Emphasizing such an integrated approach to FFI, this chapter volition outline its furnishings on a range of linguistic features by reviewing the relevant literature on instructed SLA. We begin with a brief review of prominent concepts in the literature and reiterate some of the arguments that have been put forth in support of the importance of FFI. Adjacent is a disquisitional survey of proactive and reactive FFI techniques, with reference to relevant studies for illustration. These techniques are organized under headings that reflect the stage of acquisition that they target: input enhancement, metalinguistic explanation, practice, and feedback. Our terminal section considers the integration of FFI within advice-oriented lessons, either content-based or task-based. The final section shifts to consider FFI as a topic within the domain of LA. Given that there are many excellent reviews of FFI bachelor, the goal of this overview is to provide a succinct synthesis of theoretical concepts and research findings for the benefit of the L2 practitioner and to clarify the relationship between SLA and LA perspectives of FFI.

Introduction

How tin can language awareness (LA) influence 2nd linguistic communication (L2) learning? Ane answer to this question tin be drawn from 2nd linguistic communication acquisition (SLA) in the trunk of research on grade-focused education (FFI), divers as a type of L2 instruction that "involves some endeavour to focus learners' attention on specific properties of the L2 so that they will acquire them" (Ellis, 2008: 963). Because FFI is sometimes confused with decontextualized grammar didactics, this affiliate will clarify its role as complementary to communicatively oriented or content-based approaches to 2d and foreign language teaching. Emphasizing such an integrated approach to FFI, this chapter volition outline its furnishings on a range of linguistic features past reviewing the relevant literature on instructed SLA. We begin with a cursory review of prominent concepts in the literature and reiterate some of the arguments that have been put forth in support of the importance of FFI. Next is a critical survey of proactive and reactive FFI techniques, with reference to relevant studies for illustration. These techniques are organized nether headings that reflect the phase of conquering that they target: input enhancement, metalinguistic explanation, practice, and feedback. Our final department considers the integration of FFI inside communication-oriented lessons, either content-based or task-based. The final department shifts to consider FFI equally a topic inside the domain of LA. Given that in that location are many excellent reviews of FFI available, the goal of this overview is to provide a succinct synthesis of theoretical concepts and inquiry findings for the benefit of the L2 practitioner and to analyze the relationship betwixt SLA and LA perspectives of FFI.

Background

Naturalistic and chatty L2 teaching methods flourished in the 1980s, based on the premise that implicit acquisition drives L2 performance and obviates the need for explicit L2 teaching (east.chiliad. Krashen, 1985). At that aforementioned fourth dimension, still, Canadian studies of L2 learners in content-based programmes such as French immersion (e.1000. Swain, 1985) and intensive ESL programmes based on chatty language instruction (Lightbown and Spada, 1990) began revealing that students in these programmes exhibited high levels of chatty ability simply lower-than-expected levels of linguistic accurateness. This led scholars in the 1990s to argue for the integration of form-oriented and meaning-oriented approaches to maximize the furnishings of L2 teaching. For example, Stern (1990, 1992) submitted that analytic and experiential instructional options needed to be viewed as complementary, non every bit dichotomous. He characterized analytic strategies as those that focus on language form, emphasizing accuracy and "rehearsal" of L2 skills. Experiential strategies focus on meaning and fluency, entail themes and topics as content, and engage students in purposeful tasks and authentic L2 use. He chosen for more than systematic integration of analytic strategies in contexts of immersion and content-based instruction, and more emphasis on experiential strategies in traditional programmes where the target language is taught every bit a subject.

At the same time, Long (1991) put forth the notion of focus on class in which teachers "overtly draw students' attention to linguistic elements every bit they arise incidentally in lessons whose overriding focus is on meaning" (p. 46). He considered optimal L2 education to include an implicit focus on grade operationalized as incidental asides and unobtrusive focus on linguistic communication during negotiation for meaning (meet also Long, 1996). From the learners' perspective, incidental learning is generally defined as learning without the intent to learn (or the learning of i thing when the learner's primary objective is to practice something else; run into Schmidt, 1994).

Narrative and meta-analytic reviews alike have since concluded that instruction targeting explicit learning (i.e. sensation of what is being learned) is more than constructive than implicit treatments (DeKeyser, 2003; Goo, Granena, Yilmaz and Novella, 2015; Norris and Ortega, 2000; Spada, 1997; Spada and Tomita, 2010). Thus, there is insufficient evidence from classroom research to support implicit focus on form operationalized equally incidental asides and unobtrusive focus on language. A more promising approach is FFI, which Spada (1997) defined equally "any pedagogical effort … used to draw the learners' attention to language form either implicitly or explicitly" (p. 73). Such a flexible instructional approach that ranges from implicit to explicit is important for two reasons. On the 1 hand, classroom learners tin can learn many L2 features and functions implicitly if they are exposed to sufficient quantities of rich input. On the other hand, an exclusively incidental focus on the L2 in classroom settings is arguably too brief and too perfunctory to convey sufficient data about sure grammatical subsystems.

FFI has been operationalized as either proactive or reactive (Doughty and Williams, 1998; Lyster, 2007). Proactive FFI involves planned instruction designed to enable students to notice and to utilise target linguistic communication features that might otherwise not be used or even noticed in classroom discourse. Reactive FFI occurs in response to students' language production during teacher-student interaction and includes corrective feedback every bit well every bit other attempts to draw learners' attention to the target language.

Because FFI is intended to create opportunities for students to attend to target language features in the context of content-based or pregnant-oriented tasks, information technology is different from traditional language instruction, which isolates linguistic communication from any content other than the mechanical workings of the language itself. By definition, traditional linguistic communication instruction emphasizes memorization of forms out of context, and so does not promote actual language utilize and does not foster transfer-advisable processing. In accord with transfer-appropriate processing (Lightbown, 2008; Segalowitz, 2000), the context in which learning occurs should resemble the context in which the learning will exist put to use, because memories are best recalled in conditions similar to those in which they were encoded. This means that, on the one hand, language features learned in isolated grammer lessons are remembered in like contexts, but difficult to retrieve in the context of communicative interaction. On the other hand, language features noticed during interaction driven by substantive content are more easily retrieved in similar contexts of real communication. The notion of transfer-appropriate processing provides a disarming rationale for FFI that highlights course/meaning mappings in the context of purposeful exchanges and activities rather than only in isolation.

The purpose of FFI is to strengthen students' linguistic accuracy through metalinguistic awareness in classrooms whose primary focus is on meaning and advice. Metalinguistic sensation serves as a tool for students to discover linguistic patterns in meaningful input and chatty exchanges, and is thus essential for supporting their continued linguistic communication growth. But what types of language features and patterns should be targeted by FFI? Learners in communicative classrooms certainly choice up a corking deal of language through purposeful interaction and meaningful input, including structural patterns that are congruent with their L1, loftier-frequency vocabulary, and items that are phonologically salient (i.e. easy to notice in the stream of speech considering of intonational stress) (Harley, 1993). With respect to L2 features that classroom learners find hard simply to option up from communicative input and that are thus propitious for FFI, Harley (1993) identified features that: (a) differ in non-obvious or unexpected means from the L1; (b) are irregular, infrequent or otherwise lacking in perceptual salience; (c) do not behave a heavy communicative load.

Other features that warrant FFI are: (d) those in which there is a misleading similarity between the L1 and L2 for expressing the same meaning, because such features are those that L2 learners "are well-nigh likely to have long term difficulty acquiring through communicative interaction" (Spada, Lightbown and White, 2005: 201); and (eastward) those in which a single form in the L1 is manifest equally two or more in the L2 (Ellis, 1986), because learners, for the sake of economy, may prefer one form at the expense of the other (e.yard. breezy and formal second-person pronouns in Romance languages versus the single course you lot in English). Many prime candidates for FFI thus autumn within the realm of morphosyntax, which has long been recognized as the about difficult for L2 learners, owing mainly to low salience (Goldschneider and DeKeyser, 2001; Mackey, 2006) and lack of chatty value (Han, 2004). Especially in languages that are highly inflected and morphologically complex, many morphosyntactic features are redundant because they practise non convey additional meaning and are thus decumbent to slipping nether the radar in classrooms whose primary focus is on pregnant. Accordingly, much of the research on FFI has targeted grammatical features, but at that place is a growing number of FFI studies targeting other domains such as pronunciation (east.g. Saito and Wu, 2014), vocabulary (e.1000. Laufer and Girsai, 2008) and pragmatics (due east.thou. Nguyen, Pham and Pham, 2012).

Types of Class-Focused Instruction

FFI is not a monolithic concept but rather a embrace term for a range of pedagogical techniques. These techniques are either part of the language teacher's traditional repertoire or are innovations derived from SLA or pedagogical theory (come across teacher survey results in Ranta and Waugh, 2011). The following overview of FFI techniques is an adaptation of the approach that Ellis (1998) uses to situate grammer teaching options within a computational model of L2 learning. Figure three.ane provides an overview of the proactive techniques, which consist of input enhancement techniques that aim to promote the noticing and consistent processing of targeted forms in the input, metalinguistic explanations to develop explicit noesis, and exercise to develop automaticity for fluent apply of grammatical noesis. In addition to the proactive FFI techniques in Effigy three.1, FFI can also be reactive in nature. Reactive FFI is corrective feedback on learners' errors, which serves to promote accurateness during fluent production. Each of these four types of FFI (iii proactive and ane reactive) are described in turn and illustrative studies are discussed for each type. Most of these studies involve experimental designs in which the outcomes for a treatment group are compared to those of another group who take experienced traditional instruction, an alternative treatment or no instruction. Although all of the FFI techniques described can be used to teach different language domains, for reasons of infinite we refer here mainly to research targeting grammar evolution, because this has been the focus of a great deal of research activity.

Effigy 3.1 Major categories of FFI techniques.

Proactive FFI

Input Enhancement

The first stage of the conquering procedure is input processing and the FFI technique that relates to this stage is input enhancement. This type of language teaching technique aims to describe learners' attention to a targeted form or rule, commonly past increasing its saliency through typographical devices such as increased size, dissimilar font, underlining or bolding, which is often referred to every bit visually enhanced input. The texts in which learners run into these enhancements are to be read for meaning, and follow-up activities do not involve overt caption. For example, in White (1998) French-speaking learners of English L2 read texts in which tertiary-person singular possessive determiners (his/her) were enhanced. After reading the text, they were given worksheets in which sentences from the text were extracted and they had to identify the referents for selected pronouns. Thus, every bit in other input enhancement studies, it was assumed that learners would observe and eventually acquire the target forms incidentally while reading for pregnant. Researchers accept been specially interested in typographical enhancement on the assumption that this implicit type of FFI volition lead to superior learning outcomes because natural processes are involved.

Nevertheless, reviews of input enhancement studies reveal contradictory findings, which Han, Park and Combs (2008) attribute to the non-comparability of the research designs used. The results of Lee and Huang's (2008) meta-assay of 12 studies assessing the effects of visually enhanced input revealed very small-scale positive effects on grammer learning and also a small negative effect on text comprehension. In a more recent study, LaBrozzi (2016) revealed a bureaucracy in the effectiveness of different types of textual enhancement, in which increased font size and capital letters were the first and the second about constructive, respectively. In his report, contrary to Han et al.'due south (2008) findings, visually enhanced input did not hinder learners' comprehension of pregnant.

Nigh input enhancement studies have focused on written input. Much less researched is noticing through listening. Ellis and Gaies (1999) describe their use of the listening cloze technique in their textbook Impact Grammar as "listening to notice". That is, learners listen to an audio text and complete a written cloze passage that has blanks where a target grammatical form occurs. The potential of this blazon of FFI is suggested by the findings from Morris and Tremblay (2002). In their written report, college-level ESL students in Quebec had to heed for the unstressed grammatical words in a passage; these words were replaced with a diamond. Hither is an instance of a sentence from one of the passages:

Student worksheet

Nasrudin's Keys ♦ ♦good instance ♦♦ stories ♦ simultaneously entertain ♦ teach.

Original text

Nasrudin's Keys is a good example of how stories can simultaneously entertain and teach.

Following the listening phase, students worked in pairs to compare answers and complete the cloze passage. Morris and Tremblay's study revealed superior pre- to postal service-test gains with respect to the length of their texts and grammatical accurateness for the course that experienced this procedure weekly throughout i semester, as compared to a class that followed the regular higher ESL program.

Metalinguistic Explanations

Metalinguistic explanation is the FFI technique that aims to develop learners' explicit knowledge of a given target grade. Divers simply, explicit cognition refers to the facts nearly a language that a speaker is able to verbalize (see Ellis, 2008 for detailed discussion). Explicit noesis is contrasted with implicit knowledge, which is posited to underlie a speaker's ability to comprehend and produce language fluently. This intuitive knowledge is mostly not verbalizable. A similar stardom is fabricated between declarative and procedural cognition. In this paper, we volition use the terms explicit, metalinguistic and declarative knowledge as equivalent. From an SLA perspective, the evolution of explicit knowledge is not a goal for its own sake just equally a tool or support for the eventual evolution of implicit knowledge.

In the instance of grammar, metalinguistic explanations usually entail the utilise of metalanguage, which may be more or less technical in nature (Basturkmen, Loewen and Ellis, 2002). In the case of pronunciation FFI, this explicit data might include an exaggerated model of the target class followed by explanations of how the tongue and lips are positioned (e.g. Saito, 2013).

Many SLA scholars believe that explicit knowledge of a grammar rule can assistance a learner to detect a targeted grade in the input and thereby eventually acquire it so that information technology becomes available for spontaneous production (i.e. the weak interface position). This means that the impact of didactics volition take a delayed effect rather than an firsthand one. In contrast, information processing theory posits that explicit (declarative) knowledge when practised sufficiently can get automatized and thereby bachelor for spontaneous use (i.e. the total interface position). (See give-and-take of interface positions in Ellis, 2008; White and Ranta, 2002).

Grammar explanations can be either deductive or anterior. A deductive approach involves presenting a grammer dominion first then having students observe the application of the rule in examples followed by controlled exercises such as a gap-make full practice. An anterior approach, in contrast, requires that the learners are starting time exposed to examples of the target grammar in sentences (or parts of sentences) from which they are guided to a argument of the rule; traditionally, this process is achieved dialogically with the teacher decision-making the procedure. Several studies have compared the effects of inductive vs. deductive grammar instruction and often find superior effects for the inductive arroyo (e.g. Vogel, Herron, Cole and York, 2011), whereas other studies have found effects in favour of deductive explanations (e.thousand. Erlam, 2003).

One difficulty in making comparisons across studies is that inductive education tin can have different forms, and experimental designs vary widely, which makes them non-comparable. Consider, for example, the studies by Vogel et al. (2011) and Erlam (2003). In the sometime, the 40 university students of French in the US were taught five grammatical structures inductively and 5 deductively; merely one structure was taught per grade and each lesson lasted no longer than fifteen minutes. The operationalization of guided induction in this study consisted of "an interactive, meaning-based, contextualized question/answer oral action" (p. 359). This activity, basically a grade of choral drill, was accompanied by a PowerPoint slide with visual images. Following this drill, the teacher and students collaboratively co-constructed the rule for the targeted structure. Learning was assessed through a written exam consisting of express-response items. In dissimilarity, the study of high school learners of French in New Zealand by Erlam (2003) focused on one particular rule, the direct object pronouns in French. Students in the inductive treatment group focused on the target dominion during three 45-minute lessons. They get-go worked with worksheets that involved matching written sentences with object pronouns to pictures, then they matched aurally presented sentences to pictures on overheads and completed written transformation and error identification exercises. Throughout the handling, students were encouraged to give reasons for why a particular respond was correct or not, which led to the give-and-take of the rules. Learning was assessed through listening, reading, oral production and written product tests.

Inductive learning is ofttimes promoted in teacher education courses considering of its learner-centredness. Thus, information technology is not surprising that in a questionnaire-based written report by Bell (2005), the bulk of the 457 foreign language teachers surveyed agreed that inductive teaching was better than deductive (72% vs. 26%). All the same, learners are often less convinced that inductive is all-time. Eighty percent of students in Vogel et al. (2011), who had experienced both types of education, reported that they preferred the deductive, confirming like observations in the literature.

Consciousness-Raising Tasks

As an culling to teacher-guided explanations similar those used in Vogel et al. (2011), SLA has added to the traditional pedagogical repertoire the option of a task-based approach. These tasks require learners to work collaboratively to complete a grammatical analysis of some kind, either inductively or deductively. This so-called consciousness-raising (CR) task (Fotos and Ellis, 1991) provides both a focus on grammatical form and an opportunity for learners to communicate while solving a problem and thereby appoint in the acquisitional processes that are posited to underlie interaction. A pioneering study by Fotos (1994) illustrates the potential benefits of CR tasks. She used game-like tasks with cards that either guided learners towards formulating rules or working with a given rule. She constitute that university-level Japanese learners of English who experienced three unlike CR tasks performed similarly to a grouping of learners who received traditional grammer education on the same structures. In addition, the interactional negotiations produced during the CR job were like in quantity and quality as those produced during a communicative task performed by a unlike group of learners. Using a CR task thus allows learners to get two language learning experiences for the toll of one.

Fotos' tasks are considered to be deductive considering rules were given to the students. Most examples of CR tasks in the literature tend to be inductive and text-driven. Such tasks typically consist of a text that students read and discuss for its pregnant, before they focus on the target forms. The CR job presented in Ellis (1998) first asks students to underline the time expressions in a text most Mr. Bean. The next stride is to complete a chart, which has columns for the time expressions using at, in and on. This chart serves as a scaffold to support learners' assay and articulation of the rules underlying the choice of preposition, which is the third step. Presumably, this would be followed by a debriefing step in which the teacher ensures that the groups take come up up with an adequate statement of the rule. Inductive CR tasks can also exist based on a reading or listening text that students have already worked with (eastward.thousand. the textual spot-the-difference task described in Pica, Kang and Sauro, 2006).

Technology offers yet another possibility for learner-centred discovery of language patterns through the use of corpora and concordances. This blazon of CR task is normally referred to equally data-driven learning (DDL). Smart (2014) evaluated the effectiveness of DDL using paper-based concordances drawn from a corpus. The design of the DDL lesson was based on a four-stride process outlined by Flowerdew (2009):

Illustration: students look at the data;
Interaction: they discuss and share observations and opinions;
Intervention: teacher provides hints or support, if necessary;
Induction: students make their own rule for a detail feature.

Smart institute the cyclopedia-based task to take had a beneficial upshot on L2 learning of the passive in English.

As noted higher up, CR and DDL tasks are collaborative in nature, leading to interaction and co-construction. Another mode of describing what happens when learners engage in these tasks and use their linguistic resource to deport out trouble-solving and brand sense of their emergent understanding is as languaging, which Swain (2006) refers to every bit "the process of making and shaping knowledge and experience through linguistic communication" (p. 98). Bear witness in support of the benefits of languaging are found in Young man, Lapkin, Knouzi, Suzuki and Brooks (2009). They examined university students' verbalizations with respect to the grammatical concept of vox in French (i.due east. agile, passive, and heart vox). In the report blueprint, learners were given 36 dissever explanatory statements about phonation features and were prompted to verbalize in their L1 about what these statements meant. Pre- and post-tests revealed that those who were "high languagers" in terms of quantity and quality of their verbalizations understood the concept of voice more deeply than the "low languagers". This finding suggests that CR tasks need to be carefully designed to ensure that learners are given opportunities to externalize their thinking as they grapple with difficult grammatical concepts.

Practice

Although CR tasks have great potential for enlivening form-oriented L2 teaching, the explicit knowledge that is developed does not immediately get available for use in communication. For example, in White and Ranta (2002), ane grade of francophone learners of English language performed a deductive CR task that focused on the rules for appropriate apply of the possessive determiners his/her. ¹ Compared to a similar class that did not practice the CR task, the Rule group learners were more accurate in their oral production of the target forms when describing a set of pictures. However, these learners also appeared to produce more self-repairs of the target course (e.thousand. "he run into *the her* girl") than was the case with the comparison group. This is perhaps non surprising, since they did not do using the possessive determiners, simply rather only talked most which form should go into a blank. It is simply do that can brand explicit knowledge available for fluent use.

Practise is broadly defined by DeKeyser (1998) as "engaging in an activity with the goal of becoming amend at it" (p. 50). In specific reference to grammer, Ellis (2006) argued that the objective of practice is to internalize metalinguistic knowledge through comprehension and production processing. Theoretically, given aplenty opportunities to practice and the provision of feedback, explicit noesis can become automatized (DeKeyser, 2001; Lyster and Sato, 2013). Unfortunately, traditional grammer practice consisting of written exercises such every bit gap-fills and judgement transformation practice cannot serve this internalization process. Written grammer practice exercises are arguably useful for anchoring new cognition that has been presented deductively (DeKeyser, 1998). But it appears that learners oftentimes approach these exercises as problems to exist solved rather than as opportunities for meaningful use. This is demonstrated nicely in a study past Hosenfeld (1976) who asked American loftier school students in a French class to recall aloud when completing gap-fill up exercises. She found that learners used a range of task-completion strategies such as simplifying the task by always responding affirmatively or translating to arrive at the answer or avoiding thinking about the meaning if meaning was not required.

For practice activities to exist effective, they need to be qualitatively and quantitatively different from traditional grammer exercises. Gatbonton and Segalowitz (1988) argued that what is needed are genuinely communicative activities that are inherently repetitive. An illustration of such a practice activity is the widely used "Find Someone Who" action in which students try to discover a classmate who has a sure characteristic listed on a worksheet. When students observe, for example, "someone who was built-in at home", they write that person'due south name on their checklist of paper and move on to the side by side person to see whether he/she has one of the other characteristics on the worksheet. The goal of the task is to talk to as many students equally possible inside the time-limit in social club to associate at least one name with each of the characteristics. In terms of language learning, the chore involves both repetition and data-sharing. If the listing of characteristics is properly constructed, it will permit for multiple repetitions of a particular structure. For example, a "Detect Someone Who" checklist that asks students to identify a classmate who has, for instance, met a famous person, climbed a mount, or seen a shark, will exist practising the nowadays perfect tense-attribute form (i.e. "have you ever met a famous person?"). This blazon of activity has the potential to promote transfer-appropriate processing of the target forms past means of spontaneous and contextualized practice. However, as withal at that place is lilliputian research that has specifically investigated the immediate and long-term furnishings of this type of product exercise or addressed practical questions such every bit how much practice is optimal, how to sequence practice activities, etc.

Another neglected expanse related to practice is the use of listening as a grammer practice technique. This is the case despite the fact that the role of input-based approaches to grammer instruction has been discussed in the FFI literature since the early 1990s (run into review in Ellis, 1999). Richards (2005) provides an informative give-and-take near the difference betwixt teaching listening for comprehension and listening for acquisition. His ideas accept non been tested direct, as far as we know, merely of relevance are the findings from the many studies investigating the effects of Processing Educational activity, which includes both written and audible structured input activities (for an overview of Processing Instruction, see VanPatten, 2004, and a recent meta-assay by Shintani, 2014). For example, in Qin (2008), the Processing Instruction group listened to a story and had to respond questions that required processing of the passive in lodge to answer correctly. Note that this type of listening action differs from listening-to-find activities classified above every bit an input enhancement technique in that the learner is forced to pay attention to a targeted class and process its meaning in order to reply to the task requirements.

Reactive FFI

Cosmetic Feedback

Designing activities that are pregnant-oriented even so create propitious opportunities for noticing and manipulating target forms as well as obligatory contexts for using them in meaningful ways is a challenging undertaking for L2 teachers. Outside of such activities, therefore, teachers tin focus on language during interaction nearly substantive themes past means of dissimilar types of corrective feedback. As Lightbown argued:

Piece of work on improving output is amend done in the context of more interactive activities, in which the main focus is on communication, but in which the accuracy or sophistication can be improved via focus on class via feedback and learners' self-corrections.

Lightbown, 1998: 194

Reactive FFI delivered in this manner thus parallels Long'south (1991, 1996) notion of focus on grade insofar as information technology includes the provision of corrective feedback in relatively unplanned and spontaneous ways. However, dissimilar focus on class, reactive FFI also includes feedback provided in preplanned means and through more than overt means than only recasting and negotiation for meaning.

Amongst various means of classifying corrective feedback, i well-known taxonomy is Lyster and Ranta's (1997) identification of vi types of corrective feedback, which was based on a detailed analysis of teacher-pupil interaction in French immersion classrooms. Ranta and Lyster (2007) afterward suggested that each of the 6 feedback types could be classified as either a reformulation or a prompt. On the one hand, reformulations include recasts and explicit correction because both these moves supply learners with target reformulations of their not-target output. On the other manus, prompts are signals that push button learners to self-repair without supplying the correct form, including elicitations, clarification requests, repetitions of learner error, metalinguistic clues or explanations, and paralinguistic signals.

Results of quasi-experimental research comparing the effects of different types of corrective feedback can be summarized as follows. Outset, oral cosmetic feedback is significantly more effective than no corrective feedback (e.thou. Doughty and Varela, 1998; Saito and Lyster, 2012). Second, there is a tendency for classroom learners receiving explicit correction to demonstrate greater gains than learners receiving recasts (e.one thousand. Ellis, Loewen and Erlam, 2006; Sheen, 2007). Third, at that place is a trend for classroom learners receiving prompts to demonstrate more gains on some measures than learners receiving recasts. For example, in the case of young immersion students, recasts and prompts were every bit constructive in oral product measures, only prompts were more constructive in written product measures (Lyster, 2004). Recasts and prompts were equally effective for immature ESL learners with high pretest scores, only prompts were more than effective for learners with low pretest scores (Ammar and Spada, 2006). Adult EFL students in China benefitted equally from recasts and prompts in improving accuracy of irregular past tense forms, but prompts were more effective than recasts in improving their accurate use of regular forms (Yang and Lyster, 2010).

However, information technology may not be necessary or fifty-fifty possible for researchers to identify the single about effective type of feedback (Ellis, 2012; Lyster, Saito and Sato, 2013). Instead, teachers may be well advised to orchestrate a range of feedback types. To do so, teachers demand to make choices in accordance with a host of factors including linguistic targets, interactional contexts, students' historic period and proficiency, and curricular objectives (Lyster et al., 2013). Employ of but 1 type of corrective feedback could never cover all these bases, because, equally Ammar and Spada (2006) concluded, "ane size does non fit all" (p. 566).

Integration of FFI in Content-Based Lessons

The effects of various FFI options have frequently been tested past researchers implementing a unmarried type of FFI – such as input enhancement, consciousness-raising tasks, output practise, or corrective feedback – and comparing the results of the treatment group with those of a control grouping not receiving the specific FFI handling. Although such comparisons hold theoretical value, a more than promising FFI intervention from a practitioner's perspective is likely to incorporate a variety of FFI options. In this vein, we illustrate here an instructional sequence comprising noticing and awareness activities followed by opportunities for both guided and democratic do, as proposed by Lyster (2007, 2016) specifically for content-based classrooms (run into Figure iii.2).

Figure 3.2 Instructional sequence integrating language and content in CBLT.

Source: Adapted from Lyster, 2016: 58.

The noticing phase establishes a meaningful context related to content, normally by means of a text in which target features have been contrived to appear more than salient (i.due east. typographical enhancement such as bolding and underlining) or more than frequent (i.e. input inundation). The awareness phase then encourages the students to reflect on and manipulate the target forms in a way that helps them to develop or restructure their explicit knowledge representations, usually by ways of rule-discovery tasks, metalinguistic exercises, and opportunities for pattern detection. The guided practice phase further engages students' metalinguistic sensation by pushing them to utilize the target features in a meaningful yet controlled context in gild to develop automaticity and accuracy. The sequence then comes total circumvolve at the autonomous practise phase by returning to the content expanse that served equally the starting point. Similar to guided practise, democratic practice requires the use of the target language features merely in a disciplinary or thematic context with fewer constraints, in order to encourage more autonomous use of the target linguistic communication.

To illustrate the implementation of this instructional sequence, an example is provided here from Lyster's (2015) clarification of a classroom intervention with immersion students in Grade v (10–eleven years erstwhile). FFI activities targeting grammatical gender in French were embedded in the children'southward regular curriculum materials, which integrated linguistic communication arts, history and scientific discipline. The enquiry team created a student workbook that independent modified versions of texts institute in the regular curriculum materials, in which noticing activities drew students' attention to substantive endings equally predictors of grammatical gender. For instance, in the context of learning almost the founding of Quebec City in 17th-century New French republic, endings of target nouns and their determiners had been highlighted in assuming. Target words and related patterns were key to the content of the lessons. For case, la fourrure ("fur") was a primal noun phrase because of the pivotal role of the fur merchandise in New France, and then was the noun phrase la nourriture ("nutrient") because of the lack of food in the colony that led to a serious outbreak of scurvy. The ensuing awareness activities required students then to detect the patterns by classifying the target nouns according to their endings and indicating whether nouns with these endings were masculine or feminine. In the case of la fourrure and la nourriture, students were expected to identify them both as feminine nouns because of their mutual ending –ure.

So for guided practice in attributing the correct gender mark to target nouns, a fix of riddles was used to review the challenges experienced by settlers in New France while eliciting target nouns from students. For example, the riddle (provided in French), "I am what covers certain mammals and can exist made into warm coats", was intended to arm-twist the substantive phrase la fourrure but, to stay in the game, a pupil needed to say the right gender-specific determiner, which is no minor feat for young learners of French for whom grammatical gender markers, despite their frequency, are notoriously hard.

Finally, in the autonomous practice phase, teachers returned to an emphasis on content objectives by request students to reflect on some of the differences between life in the 17th century and life today, especially with respect to social values. For example, students were asked to compare the attitudes of people in New France with those of people today concerning the fashionability of fur. Even though the subject-matter goal was to have students question and compare unlike social realities, teachers maintained a secondary focus on linguistic communication by ensuring correct use of gender markers at least with key topic words such as la fourrure.

Considering the instructional sequence was designed to shift students' attending between language and content, it exemplifies a counterbalanced approach that gives language and content objectives complementary status (Lyster, 2007). As illustrated in Effigy three.2, the sequence begins with a principal focus on content during the noticing phase and so zooms in on language during the awareness phase and guided do stage. During the autonomous do phase, the primary instructional focus is once again on the content that served as the starting point. The accent during the noticing and autonomous practise phases is thus on content, showtime on the hardships (famine, illness, conflict) experienced by the settlers in New France, and then later on comparisons of unlike social realities then and now. The emphasis is more on linguistic communication during the awareness and guided practice phases, outset with a focus on detecting rules for grammatical gender attribution in the history texts, followed by oral practice in using target nouns with correct determiners while reviewing the history content. Interwoven throughout the instructional sequence is a reactive approach to FFI that serves as on-going scaffolding, including corrective feedback and requests for elaboration that support students' use of the L2 while helping to move their L2 development forward.

FFI and Linguistic communication Awareness

Although scholars in SLA and LA share an interest in FFI, there are important differences in their respective orientations. According to the website of the Clan for Language Sensation, LA "can be divers as explicit knowledge about language, and conscious perception and sensitivity in language learning, language teaching, and language employ". Not surprisingly, LA work dealing with explicit cognition and language learning draws heavily upon SLA for theoretical concepts, research methods and empirical show. A large proportion of this show is conceptualized within a cognitivist theoretical view. Nonetheless, given an interest in language education and teacher instruction, scholars working within a LA perspective have highlighted characteristics of LA teaching, some of which come from SLA while others are general educational principles (Wright and Bolitho, 1993; Borg, 1994; Svalberg, 2007). These characteristics are succinctly summarized by Svalberg (2007) every bit "description (not prescription), exploration, languaging, engagement and reflection" (p. 292).

The first two principles are clearly related to the types of FFI that accept been investigated by SLA enquiry. The principle of using a descriptive rather than a prescriptive approach is a foundational value from linguistics that informs SLA enquiry; information technology specifically comes to the fore in FFI inquiry that deals with sociolinguistic variants (eastward.g. French and Beaulieu, 2016). Exploration and languaging are features of inductive CR tasks, particularly information-driven learning tasks. Engagement and reflection are terms that Svalberg (2007) uses to refer to the view expressed by Borg (1994) that LA instruction should not only develop learners' linguistic cognition but likewise their language learning skills, thereby nurturing learners' autonomy, while engaging their emotions likewise equally their cognition. Svalberg (2009) farther elaborates on these ideas past proposing a framework for date with language in terms of cognitive, affective and social dimensions.

Finally, Svalberg (2007) notes that i branch of the LA scholarly customs argues that the exploratory element of linguistic communication engagement should not exist limited to the linguistic but rather also include a critical dimension in which the implicit ability relationships and ideologies constructed in discourses are revealed (e.g. Fairclough, 1999). For example, Morgan (2004) describes a grammar lesson in a Canadian ESL course for immigrants where a focus on modal verbs was embedded inside a broader discussion of the ramifications of a hereafter political upshot (i.e. the 1995 referendum on Quebec sovereignty in Canada). This immune issues of identity and citizenship to be negotiated and problematized. Information technology should be emphasized that critical language sensation is only as of import, if not more so, in the L1 classroom. From this brief clarification of the LA perspective, we conclude that the conferences and journal of the Association for Language Awareness provide a venue and an audience where SLA-oriented, pedagogical and critical approaches to FFI can flourish.

Concluding Comments

In this chapter, we accept been selective in our option of topics and references to the SLA literature in gild to provide a coherent account of FFI. We have not dwelt on theoretical arguments from SLA equally to whether syntax is teachable (due east.m. VanPatten, 2011), nor on the findings from studies of instructor noesis relating to the practitioner's view of grammar instruction (east.g. Borg, 2003). Rather, we have called to focus on the pedagogically relevant, since, from our own personal experiences, this is especially needed past decorated educators and graduate students who typically notice the FFI literature to be vast and bewildering, total of contradictory findings and overlapping terminology. We have provided basic sketches of some pedagogical tools for teachers to try, and have portrayed these proactive and reactive FFI techniques as being complementary rather than in competition, targeting dissimilar aspects of the learning process. We take presented these FFI techniques "equally a set of psycholinguistically motivated pedagogic options" (Ellis, 2001: 12), merely conclude that optimal effectiveness is likely to outcome from combining these options into an integrated instructional sequence driven by meaningful and motivating content.

Notation

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